Grants-in-aid for Scientific Research – Kakenhi — (B) from Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS)
Constructing Plurilingual Communities in East Asia: Implications from Hong Kong
[Hong Kong Project]
0. Introduction
This study intends to pursue a means of constructing multilingual communities based on European plurilingualism in East Asia by examining a multilingual society holistically using multidimensional approaches including theoretical linguistics, applied linguistics, educational engineering. Hong Kong is located in East Asia and is geographically and economically close to Japan. Focus on this neighboring country will allow researchers to explore the state of plural language use in this region, and make a comprehensive observation of language, culture and society. This observation will expand the stock of knowledge regarding the actual condition of plurilingual communities. Furthermore, in corporation with second language educators in Hong Kong, the researchers will conduct action research to develop a reciprocal foreign language program in polycentric language learning environments. These two approaches should complement each other through mutual cooperation for the construction of plurilingual communities in East Asia. The research plan is as follows:
1. Research Background
1.1 Pluriligualism view of language competence and translanguaging
In Europe, plurilingualistic content-based second language teaching has been put into practice (i.e., CLIL: Content and language integrated learning). It is characterized by the bilingual instructor’s use of plural languages in foreign language classes as well as specialized subjects such as mathematics, science, and social studies. This use of two or more languages is called translanguaging.
In the past, code-switching, a bilingual speaker’s behavior of changing languages, was widely observed in bilingual societies. This term has negative connotations because the behavior was contrary to the monolingual speaker/society’s values toward languages. Moreover, the behavior was considered to be a product of incomplete second language acquisition; thus, code-switching implied that the speaker could not maintain communication in only one language. In other words, code-switching negates the goal of second language education: to achieve communication only in the target language.
Even though both translanguaging and code-switching indicate going back and forth between languages, the term of translanguaging is preferred and it has positive connotations based on an idealistic belief regarding language policies. In Europe, passport control was abolished and currency has been unified since the 1970s in order to facilitate intraregional exchange and development. The motto, “Unity in diversity,” was used to encourage all Europeans to be bilinguals in order to facilitate communication among member states without any communication sacrificing their heritage (native) languages. The goal was for each person to learn two or more languages at a threshold level as a means of basic communication. Native-like proficiency was not intended. Gradually, the leaning objectives became sophisticated and six-level proficiency was described with can-do statements. This developed into CEFR: Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. Yet, the fundamental direction is towards the society in which people speak two or more languages with sufficient ability to talk to others with different mother tongues by switching languages, if necessary.
In the United States, the power structure among language groups was the foundation of bilingual education. The goal was to assimilate minority groups into mainstream society by fostering the second language to the level of the native target language speaker’s proficiency. On the other hand, Canadian multilingualism aims for cultural symbiosis and so does European plurilingualism; thus, the goal is to use the second language communicatively to fulfill a purpose．Proficiency as a second language speaker is a practical goal. The participants in a conversation cover various combinations of second language speakers; therefore, simultaneous use of multiple languages is not considered unorthodox．Translanguaging has emerged as an educational method oriented towards an ideal second language speaker from the perspective of plurilingualism.
1.2 The state of language education policy in Japan and a future course from the perspective of East Asian geography
English education policy for Japanese schools has recently made remarkable progress. After the economic bubble burst, fear of losing its international position pushed Japan to undertake drastic measures such as proposing English as the second official language, creating a strategic plan to cultivate ‘Japanese with English Abilities’, and designing educational endeavors to foster global human resources. Behind the scenes are human, material and information globalization, and escalation of international competition in economy, society and culture. It is widely accepted that the Japanese people’s inability to speak English is a hindrance. Many believe a rapid growth in the number of English speakers is imperative for Japan to survive in the international society. This opinion is based on a competition-oriented view of the world.
Neither proponents nor opponents of English education policies can escape the Japan-centric view of the world. Critics of practical English education maintain that English is not necessary for majority of Japanese. Yet some proponents of the policies long for communicative competence in English at the native speaker’s proficiency level because they think that they can improve their status by speaking like them.
Without question, materials, people, and information will continue being transported on a global scale, and the contact with non-Japanese speakers will increase in future. However, when Japanese converse in English with non-Japanese speakers in Japan, they are likely to talk to non-native English speakers. The English used during such communication will be exceedingly diversified.
The appearance and expansion of non-Japanese language communities indicate the globalization of Japan. For example, company employees are increasingly having online conferences with oversea colleagues on a daily-basis. In the meetings, they are linked with divisions in India, China, Indonesia, Scotland, Korea and so forth. Participants include those who speak English as native, second language and foreign languages. For this reason, each employee must be competent in a variety of Englishes.
Another case in point is a potential situation in a university laboratory. International students often arrive in Japan with insufficient Japanese proficiency. As a matter of course, a professor with adept English skills will give directions and write emails in English to all students. Japanese students must understand English, and submit experiment reports and term papers in this language. Multilingual communities are substantial in Japan; however, there are mixture of those who experience it every day and those who do not realize such communities exist.
If attention is focused on the mediation between the monolingual Japanese society and the non-Japanese community, then it will follow the bilingual education and multilingualism model from the mono-lingual perspective that is seen in the United States. Foresight will allow society to advance beyond Japan’s national interest and move towards constructing a linguistically diversified society with the goal of co-existence and co-prosperity with neighboring regions. This action will pave the way to Plurilingualism like that in Europe and multiculturalism/multilingualism in Canada.
We define a global human resource as symbiotic human beings who adapt a multicultural environment. The more intensive economic and cultural exchanges become in East Asia, the more urgent cultivation of a multifaceted viewpoint will become in this the region. Japan, Korea, and China are primarily monolingual societies (though China is a large country and there are many exceptions); whereas the United States has serious language friction due to immigration. At present, East Asians do not migrate as frequently as those in Europe; however, if human exchanges and movements are also activated in East Asia, it will only be a matter of time before the situation is like Europe. East Asia, as an economic and cultural entity, is closer to Europe than the United States. As such, denizens in this area must acquire reasonable proficiency in plural languages appropriate for a second language speaker.
In this study, researchers advocate that Japan take a plurilingualistic view of foreign language education. Issues that may arise in constructing plurilinguistic language community in East Asia will be discussed.
2. Scope of research problems in this study
The duration of this study is three years. The ultimate goal is to create a plurilingual community in East Asia. This study’s pilot program will focus on Hong Kong because it is a representative of a multilingual community in Asia. There must be a premiliminary investigation of its actual state and the issues that have arisen in society. Researchers will also conduct a second language learning system trial in which students will mutually assist each other in learning Japanese, English and Chinese. The success of this project in Hong Kong will create a foundation for conducting research studies in other East Asian regions by applying a similar research method.
3. Distinctiveness, originality, and significance of this study
The distinctiveness of this study lies in its interdisciplinarity. While attempting to conduct this study, academic disciplines will be divided according to languages such as Japanese, English, Chinese and Korean. As such, it will be difficult for researchers to interact. Another obstacle is the segmentation of research fields such as linguistics, language education, and cross-cultural communication. At first glance, the research topic seems commonplace, but it is challenging to implement this type of study within Japanese academic society. This study will be groundbreaking.
The originality of this study is in its theoretical foundation. Few researchers have discussed the applicability of European plurilingualism in an Asian context.
The significance of this study lies in the holistic research approach. If this project succeeds, while including theoretical linguistic analysis and second language education in coordination, it will become a model for other research designs.
4. Method
This study consists of (1) field survey of changes and current state of language education in Hong Kong，(2) field survey of Japanese children’s language education and investigation of their language acquisition，(3) contrastive analysis of language use by Hong Kong residents，(4) Attitude survey on Chinese learners of Japanese language in a university in Hong Kong and，(5) development and implementation of a reciprocal foreign language learning program between students in Hong Kong and Japan.
Five research areas will be divided into three groups. Once a year (three times in the first year), member of this research project and research collaborators as well as researchers and practitioners in pertinent fields will hold meetings to present ongoing research reports in either Hong Kong or Japan. After advancing the study with improvements based on discussions in these meetings, a symposium will be held at an international conference in the final year.
4.1 Framework of the study method
In conducting a study aimed towards creating plurilingual communities in East Asia, the three points below will be included in the framework.
１． Features and distinctions of languages used and studied in East Asia will be examined with methods for contrastive analysis in order to resolve misunderstandings and communication disruptions in language contact situations.（Language and Communication）
２． Make observation of language education policies in East Asia, and give suggestions that support autonomous second language learning based on stock of information in the field of second language acquisition and educational psychology.（Educational Measures and Language Learners）
３． By utilizing knowledge from theoretical linguistics, applied linguistics, and educational engineering, this study will verify and test progressive and experimental educational practice in second language learning to foster plurilingual speakers.（Education and Technology）
５．Management
5.1 Central Management
The Research Faculty of Media Communication at Hokkaido University will serve as the central management hub. Dr. Yasushi Kawai will be responsible for management control and information communication. Dr. Miho Yorozu, a professor in the School of Japan Studies at University of Hong Kong, will be in charge of on-site collaboration.
5.2 Research Organization
Chief Investigator: Yasushi Kawai（Hokkaido University）
Investigators：Maki Iida・Goh Kawai・Yoshiko Kobayashi・Tomohisa Yamada（Hokkaido University）・Yoshiki Yokoyama（Hokkaido University of Education at Sapporo）・Aiko Sano（Hokkaido Bunkyo University）
On-site Collaborator：Miho Yorozu（University of Hong Kong）
Collaborators：Satoko Imaizumi・Satoko Sugie（Graduate School, Hokkaido University）
5.3 Communication among Investigators and Public Relations
The website for this study (http://mithrandir.iic.hokudai.ac.jp/sugie/hkp48/), will allow investigators to communicate, and publish ongoing reports presented at study meetings and symposia.
６．Roles of Investigators
6.1 Language and Communication（Maki Iida, & Satoko Imaizumi）
The multilingual society Hong Kong is constituted by languages such as Cantonese, Mandarin (Putonghua), and English. In this study, students in Hong Kong will learn Japanese as a reciprocal second language learning project. These four languages will be analyzed according to a contrastive linguistics approach. In the analysis of Cantonese, with a cognitive linguistics approach, language phenomena that greatly affect communication will be analyzed. Research topics include discourse modality that expresses speakers’ consideration and attention towards listeners, as well as modality that expresses speakers’ attitude and belief towards events. Differences among Cantonese, Mandarin, English and Japanese, as well as that between bilinguals and monolinguals with regard to language phenomena described above will be observed along with perspectives in different languages, and comparison of relationships among polysemous words in different languages. At present, potential expressions and perception expressions are the principal targets of the analysis.
6.2 Educational Measures and Language Learners（Yoshiki Yokoyama, Aiko Sano, &Yoshiko Kobayashi）
This section includes the educational language policy, language acquisition of Japanese students, and language acquisition by non-Japanese university students.
6.2.1 The educational language policy in Hong Kong: Transition of educational language policy will be examined, and its background will be explored based on literature reviews, questionnaires, and interviews. Focus will be placed on various types of bilingual education developed in pursuit of fostering trilingual ability in Cantonese, Mandarin and English after the return of Hong Kong to China. After the restoration, English education in Hong Kong first proceeded toward late immersion. When it became deadlocked, the system morphed into a band system in which students are divided into school groups with a varied ratio of English use in class according to their academic ability. This change is spreading throughout society due to a cultural climate that places heavy emphasis on academic background. This system also affected elementary education. More schools emphasized English literacy education form the first grade. This study investigates the reason for the permeation of band system in the society using questionnaire and interviews regarding educational system and parental beliefs. The reasons why late immersion was not accepted will also be examined.
6.2.2 Language acquisition of Japanese students in Hong Kong: With the special attention placed on bilingual ability in writing, the language acquisition of Japanese children in Hong Kong will be examined in contrast to those in Canada and other countries. As the march towards globalization hastens, more multilingual human resources will be required. Bilingual children and students must have advanced bilingual ability in reading and writing as well as speaking. Educational support to facilitate the development of such an ability is needed urgently. Bilingual writings in English and Japanese (or trilingual writings in the two languages and Chinese) by Japanese children and/or those in international marriage under the same topic will be used as data to examine relationships between different languages in writing ability and variables for its development. By contrasting the results with those in Canada, the intent is to highlight implications towards bilingual education in an Asian context, and to contribute to the development of human resources with superior multilingual ability.
6.2.3 Japanese language learning by university students in Hong Kong: Through interviews and questionnaires regarding interest to a pop culture and youth subculture, the data will be collected and analyzed to examine the learning incentive among Japanese language learners in Hong Kong. In a multilingual society with plurilingual principles, cross-cultural contact often influences second language acquisition motivation. Information will be gathered via a free description questionnaire from university students who study Japanese in Hong Kong regarding whether they have an interest in Japanese pop culture or not, and whether it is a factor to start and maintain Japanese language learning. Then, a questionnaire will be prepared based on the collected data. This questionnaire will investigate how interest in Japanese pop culture is tied to a Japanese learning motivation. An interview investigation will also be conducted to obtain further information. In terms of how Japanese pop culture is received in Hong Kong, information will be gathered from print media, broadcast media, and motion pictures for social and historical evidence.
6.3 Educational Measures and Language Learners（Yasushi Kawai, Goh Kawai, Tomohisa Yamada, Satoko Sugie）
Based on knowledge and information from applied linguistics and educational technology, a reciprocal autonomous language learning program will be developed for students in Hong Kong and Japan. The primary target languages are Japanese and English. At a later date, the same type of learning program could be created for learners of Chinese and Cantonese. The proficiency level of learners is expected to be intermediate for English and beginning to intermediate for Japanese, Chinese and Cantonese.
6.3.1 Japanese-English reciprocal second language learning program: With the use of learned grammatical forms, content-oriented language activities will be conducted alternately in Japanese and English. The learning of those grammatical items as well as reading and listening will be done in advance of classes as autonomous computer-assisted learning. Classes will be activity-oriented with a combination of text chats, video chats, and face-to-face language activities among online and local participants from Hong Kong and Sapporo, Hokkaido. Classes will be evaluated by learner questionnaire, and standardized classroom analysis such as COLT and MOLT.
6.3.2 Japanese learners of Chinese distance learning program：
After conducting needs analysis regarding plurilinguistic policy making for Chinese, Cantonese and Japanese learning to cope with tourist urbanization in Hokkaido and Sapporo, we will develop e-learning materials. Upon completion of autonomous learning using this material, we will conduct flipped active learning classes that will allow students in Japan and Hong Kong will talk to each other. Topics include differences between Chinese learned in Japan and that spoken in Hong Kong, customer service in Chinese in cafés, and the like. When the program ends, learning activities will be evaluated by learners from both sides using a questionnaire survey.
7．Schedule
7.1 The 2015 academic year
・Three meetings will be held, one of which will be in Hong Kong. On-going research reports as well as literature reviews will be presented in the three divisions. The third meeting, which will be held in Japan, will be a public symposium with invited speakers in relevant fields.
・Cantonese, Mandarin, English and Japanese data regarding language phenomena relating to communication will be gathered by interviews with native speakers and corpus analysis.
・Researchers will visit schools and relevant administrative organizations to investigate school systems in Hong Kong.
・Researchers will visit Japanese schools, Saturday schools, and other heritage language education facilities for Japanese children in Hong Kong, and make classroom observations, as well as collect data, which will be accumulated into a multi-lingual composition database. Consent forms will be gathered appropriately. This data will be added to an existing Japanese-English bilingual composition database under construction.
・Interviews and free description surveys will be conducted among students in Hong Kong as a basis to develop a motivation study regarding pop culture and subculture questionnaire.
・Pop cultures received in Hong Kong will be investigated from a historical and social perspective.
・In order to develop reciprocal Japanese and English learning materials, questionnaire for needs analysis will be conducted among students in Hong Kong and Japanese.
・Plurilinguistic e-learning materials for Chinese learning will be developed. The distance learning environment will also be confirmed.
7.2 The 2016 and 2017 academic years
・We will continue the investigations, and clarify Japanese, Chinese and English from contrastive linguistics perspectives, changes and present the state of language education policies in Hong Kong, plurilingual competence among Japanese students in Hong Kong, motivation of Japanese learning among students in Hong Kong.
・Researchers will develop reciprocal autonomous Japanese and English learning program for students in Hong Kong and Japan, and run a trial.
・Researchers will report research results at domestic and international conferences.
・Researchers will host an international symposium to summarize this study and to publicize the research results.
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